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LGBT linguistics is the study of language as used by members of the LGBT community. Related or synonymous terms include lavender linguisticsadvanced by William Leap in the s, which "encompass[es] a wide range of everyday language practices" in LGBT communitiesdistinctive voices thesis, [1] and queer linguisticswhich more specifically refers to linguistics overtly concerned with exposing heteronormativity. Early studies in the field of LGBT linguistics were dominated by the concept of distinct "lavender lexicons" such as that recorded by Gershon Legman distinctive voices thesis Linguistics research, particularly within North American Englishhas revealed a number of phonetically salient features used by many gay mendistinctive voices thesis, some of which adhere to stereotypes.
Studies have repeatedly confirmed that male American English speakers are recognized as gay by their speech at rates above chance, distinctive voices thesis. Also, gay men may tend to lower the TRAP and DRESS front vowelsespecially in "fun" or casual social situations.
Many gay speech characteristics match those that other speakers use when trying distinctive voices thesis speak especially clearly or carefully, including over- enunciating and widening the vowel spaces in the mouth. The notion that some gay male speech entirely imitates women's speech is inaccurate, distinctive voices thesis, though certain vocal qualities are certainly shared distinctive voices thesis the two speech styles.
Speech scientist Benjamin Munson confirmed such features among lesbians as the use of lower pitch and more direct communication styles found in previous studies, [8] [9] plus more backed variants of back vowels[10] but he noted too that differences between lesbians and straight women are "even more subtle" than differences between gay and straight men.
The study's author theorized that the straight women, distinctive voices thesis, aware of the study's purpose, may have been attempting to express their affinity with lesbians by adopting their stereotype of a lower pitch. However, distinctive voices thesis, no direct correlations between these phonetic variables and sexual orientation were found, perhaps with listeners identifying other features that were not tested.
Linguist Robin Queen argues that analyses have been too simplistic and that a uniquely lesbian language is constructed through the combination of sometimes-conflicting stylistic tropes : stereotypical women's language e.
hypercorrect grammarstereotypical nonstandard forms associated with the male working class e. contractionsstereotypical gay male lexical items, and stereotypical lesbian language e. flat intonation, cursing. Sometimes lesbians deliberately avoid stereotypical female speech, according to Queen, in order to distance themselves from "normative" heterosexual female speech patterns. Linguistic research on the language of transgender communities has explored the gendered phonetic aspects of the voice, specific gendered lexical items pronouns, identity labels, terms of addressdistinctive voices thesis, as well distinctive voices thesis specific discursive practices within trans communities pronoun introductions, coming out stories, linguistic activism.
Phonetics research has shown that the physical voices of trans men and transmasculine and trans women and transfeminine individuals is often but not always affected by social and medical transition, including through voice trainingtracheal shavesfeminizing hormonesmasculinizing hormonesor other drugs, all of which can alter sociolinguistic characteristics.
A study noted that, after undergoing five oral resonance sessions targeted at lip spreading and forward tongue carriage, ten transfeminine individuals demonstrated a general increase in the formant frequency values F1, F2, and F3 as distinctive voices thesis as the fundamental frequency value F0, meaning an overall higher vocal pitch, thus more closely approximating distinctive voices thesis desired vocal frequency of cisgender women.
Research on the lexicon of transgender people shows that they often use creative tactics to avoid specific physical or gender-specific characteristics of genital terms, including using certain words for specific genitalia. Nonbinary people may perform gender in a unique way through language. They may reject being referred to by gendered pronouns like English he or sheand use they or neopronouns distinctive voices thesis are not gendered or which indicate a nonbinary gender.
English examples of neopronouns go back to the s with thon and e ; [21] newer pronouns include eydistinctive voices thesis, emxeand ve. Nonbinary people may also use different words for traditionally gender-expressing relationships e.
partner instead of boyfriend. The English singular they has several functions, distinctive voices thesis. Besides referencing to an unspecific person as in "the ideal student never forgets their homework", it is also used for specific people as in "Jayden forgot their homework".
Non-binary—inclusive language includes terms besides pronouns, distinctive voices thesis, and depending on the language, other aspects of the language such as suffixes are also used differently. In Romance languages like French and Spanish, distinctive voices thesis, for example, affixes of nouns, adjectives and participles with gender agreement are changed, as well as pronouns and articles.
Depending on the language and sociolinguistic factors, there are different approaches to undo the grammatical binary when speaking about people. For Spanish, the morphemes -x and -e are used, and can be seen in terms like Latinx and pronouns like elle[24] while in French, non-binary pronouns include iel singular; plural: iels. Kris Knisely states that using a comprehensible non-binary inclusive distinctive voices thesis has advantages in foreign language education.
For more gender neutral forms in different languages, see Gender neutrality in languages with gendered third-person pronouns. Specialized dictionaries that record gay and lesbian slang tend to revolve heavily around sexual matters, which may reflect the publications' methodological assumptions about the hyper-sexuality of conversations among LGBT people.
One study showed distinctive voices thesis pornographic imagery to men and asked them to discuss the imagery, finding that conversations between gay men used more slang and fewer commonly-known terms about sexual behavior than conversations where both participants were heterosexual males or where the pair consisted distinctive voices thesis one heterosexual and one homosexual male.
Studies have also been done into whether words used within the gay community are understood by heterosexuals. This compared to zero heterosexual men and only one distinctive voices thesis of eleven heterosexual women knowing the sign, distinctive voices thesis. One prominent example of LGBT slang is the rising reappropriation among lesbians of the word " dyke ".
Though still in many contexts considered pejorative"dyke" has become a symbol for increasing acceptance of the lesbian movement and identity. Lesbians themselves use it to further solidarity and unity among their community. Examples include dyke marches female-exclusive pride parades"dykes with tykes" describing lesbian motherhoodDykes to Watch Out For a comic strip that ran for 25 yearsand Dykes on Bikes a motorcycle group that traditionally leads the San Francisco Pride parade. Like other minorities, female homosexuals are slowly reclaiming a word that was once used to hurt them in the past.
Faggot, often shortened to fag, is a usually pejorative term used chiefly in North America primarily to refer to a gay man or boy, distinctive voices thesis. Traditionally it was believed that one's way of speaking is a result of one's identity, but the postmodernist approach reversed this theory to suggest that the way we talk is a part of identity formation, specifically suggesting that gender identity is variable and not fixed.
One of these early views was that homosexuality was a pathology, distinctive voices thesis. There was a shift in beliefs from language being a distinctive voices thesis of identity to language being employed to reflect a shared social identity and even to create sexual or gender identities.
Shared ways of speaking can be used to create a single, cohesive identity that in turn help organize political struggle. This shared identity can in some cases be strengthened through shared forms of language use and used for political organizing. Language can be used to negotiate relations and contradictions of gender and sexual identities, and can index identity in various ways, even if there is no specific gay or lesbian code of speaking.
Gay men and lesbians may, through the use of language, form speech communities. A speech community is a community that shares linguistic traits and tends to have community boundaries that coincide with social units. Membership in speech communities is often assumed based on stereotypes about the community as defined by non-linguistic factors.
Gender performativity relates to speech in that people may consciously or unconsciously modify their speech distinctive voices thesis to conform with their gender rolewhich men often pick speech styles that reflect the culturally defined standards of masculinity.
Gay men may be associated with "femininity" in their speech styles because others perceive that their speech performance does not conform with their gender, distinctive voices thesis.
For example, in the west, parodies of gay styles employ resources that are heard as hyper-feminine, supporting that gay speech is feminine. These stylistic innovations are made possible by the iterability of speech, and are used to index elements of identity that often do not conform with the gender binary. adolescent males often use the term 'fag' to police one another, which challenges their sexual orientation through gender performance, and reinforces the avoidance of the 'abject' or femininity.
The boundary between 'masculine' and 'feminine' is maintained by cultural norms and societal orders, that do not permit masculinity to include femininity, the abject. Language use can also mimic culturally dominant forms or stereotypes.
Such discourses may in turn reproduce or modify social relationships. In a particular example of how this process of language community formation happens in a specific LGBTQ community, transgender people and transvestites may use vocabulary that includes members and excludes non-members to establish social identity distinctive voices thesis solidarity and to exclude outsiders. As these social groups are particularly likely to be viewed negatively by outsiders, the use of a private language can serve to keep membership in the group a secret to outsiders while allowing group members to recognize their own.
Some members of a community may use stylistic and pragmatic devices to index and exaggerate orientations and identities, but others may deliberately avoid stereotypical speech. In this way, for distinctive voices thesis, speaking forcefully is associated with masculinity but also with confidence and authority.
Speakers may have a shared interest, and respond to a mutual situation, and through communicating regularly they may develop certain speech norms. The innovative speech norms that LGBTQ people may use within their communities of practice can be spread through institutions like schools where person of many classes, races, and genders come together.
These particular speech traits may be spread through the adoption of use by people with association to LGBTQ identities. People often are members of multiple communities, and which community they want to be most closely associated with may vary. For some gay men, the primary self-categorization is their identity as gay men. To achieve recognition as such, gay men may recognize and imitate forms of language that reflect the social identity of gay men, or which are stereotypically considered to be characteristic to gay men.
For example, they may be used only in jest, or may be used more seriously to stabilize a group of gay men and bond its members together. The development of gay identity may differ for men and women.
For many women, regardless of orientation, female identity is more important than sexual identity. Where gay men feel a need to assert themselves against male heterosexual norms, lesbians may be more concerned about sexism than about lesbian identity. Most studies of lesbian speech patterns focus on conversational patterns, as in Coates and Jordan and Morrish and Saunton Women draw on a variety of discourses, particularly feminist discourses, to establish themselves as not submissive to heteropatriarchy by distinctive voices thesis cooperative all-female talk, which is marked by less distinct turns and a more collaborative conversational environment.
Often the conversational bond between women overrides their sexual identities. Collaborative discourse involves resisting dominant gender norms through more subtle creation of solidarity, and not necessarily resisting "gender-typical" linguistic behavior. An example of a distinctive way of speaking for a female community is that of female bikers. Dykes on Bikesa mostly lesbian group, and Ladies of Harley, a mostly heterosexual group, have demonstrated shared experiences. Though the two cultures distinctive voices thesis, both have a focus on female bonding and motorcycles and have a shared distinctive voices thesis biker language.
Their shared language helps to establish their shared identity in a largely male-dominated domain and to mark boundaries between them and traditional femininity.
Changing speech styles, or code-switchingcan indicate which identity individuals want to put forward as primary at a given time. Choices of language use among gay men depend on the audience and context, [52] and shift depending on situational needs such as the need to demonstrate or conceal gay identity distinctive voices thesis a particular environment.
Likewise, lesbians may foreground lesbian identity in some contexts but not in others. For example, a gay man might use certain key words and mannerisms distinctive voices thesis known by the community as a test to see whether they are recognized by the interlocutor. This allows the gay man to establish solidarity with a community member previously unknown to him without having to disclose his orientation to a heterosexual and potentially hostile person.
However, inconsistency of language use between different sub-groups of the LGBTQ community, along with the existence of non-members who may be familiar with a gay mode of speech, can make such exploratory switching unreliable. People may also use code-switching to comment on society or for entertainment. Black drag performers often use stereotypical "female white English" to disrupt societal assumptions about gender and ethnicity distinctive voices thesis to express criticisms of these assumptions.
Imitations do not necessarily represent actual language use of a group, but rather the generally recognized stereotypical speech of that group.
In the language of drag performers, language play is also marked by juxtaposition of contradictory aspects such as very proper language mixed with obscenities, adding to the queens' and kings' deliberate disruption of cultural and linguistic norms. Don Kulick argues that the search for a link between sexual identity categories and language is misplaced, since studies have failed to show that the language gay men and lesbians use is unique. Kulick argues that though some researchers may be politically motivated to imagine a LGBTQ community that is a unified whole and identifiable through linguistic means, this speech community does not necessarily exist as such.
Kulick points out that the LGBTQ community is not homogeneous, nor is its language use. Features of "gay speech" are not used consistently by gay individuals, nor are they consistently absent from the speech of all heterosexual individuals. Further, Kulick takes issue with frequently circular definitions of queer speech. He argues that speech patterns cannot be labeled LGBTQ language simply because they are used by LGBTQ people.
Studies of a speech community that presuppose the existence of that community may reproduce stereotypes that fail to accurately depict the social reality of variance among subgroups within a community and overlapping identities for individuals.
The most UNIQUE VOICES on The Voice #2 - Top 10
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Course Listings. For the Academic Year YSE courses will return to in-person format. Any deviations from this will be noted below Thesis The role of language in education. Each mode has its own distinctive traits, as well as advantages and disadvantages. Lecture. Others with soft voices or small stature felt they no longer had to struggle to be taken seriously in a meeting (Zuboff, , p. ) As was emphasized earlier, we employ only the best and most Distinctive Voices Martin Luther King Essay proficient academic writers. All of our writing experts have an academic degree and broad expertise in scholarly writing, which allows them to deliver superb essay help online
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